Identification and Characterization of Bacterial Resistome from Potable Water and Ice Pops in Juja, Kenya

Abstract

Water is essential for life, yet access to safe drinking water remains a challenge in many developing regions where distribution systems and vended products often harbor diverse microbiota. These microbial communities can serve as reservoirs for pathogens and antibiotic resistance determinants, promoting the spread of antibiotic resistance .Antibiotic resistance has emerged as a major global public health threat, reducing the effectiveness of commonly used treatments, leading to many deaths. This study aimed to characterize the bacterial antimicrobial resistance genes (resistome) in potable water and ice pops sold in Juja, Kenya. A total of 45 potable water samples and 10 ice pop samples were collected from vendors in Juja using purposive sampling. Vendor compliance with public hygiene policies was assessed using a survey guided by the Water Services Regulatory Board (WASREB) guidelines. Microbial contamination was evaluated using total coliform counts, bacterial diversity was profiled through metagenomic sequencing, and antibiotic resistance was assessed using disc diffusion technique and the Chan Zuckerberg ID pipeline.The study revealed that most vendors did not comply with the WASREB and public vending hygiene guidelines and policies, which could be a contributing factor to the high levels of bacterial contamination in potable water. Frozen pops and samples from the Gate C region of JKUAT recorded the highest contamination levels (1,073,000 CFU/mL and 505,415 CFU/mL respectively), while Witethie recorded the lowest contamination level (4,950 CFU/mL). Sachet pops showed no detectable contamination.A total of 30 putative microorganisms were identified through culture dependent technique whereas metagenomics identified a total of 113 distinct bacterial species.Metagenomic sequencing results revealed diverse pathogenic bacteria, including Enterococcus faecium, Enterococcus faecalis, Burkholderia cepacia, Pseudomonas spp., Klebsiella spp., and Salmonella enterica. The antibiotic resistant genes (ARGs) detected included aac(6')-Iae and aac(6')-Iai, found in all samples, aac(6')-Ia, aac(6')-Iaj, aac(6')-I33, aph(3')-VIIIa and mutated rrsB.These genes primarily confer resistance to aminoglycoside antibiotics. The detected ARGs are associated with pathogenic microbes, further complicating the public health risks posed by contaminated water and ice pops. The detected pathogenic bacteria cause infections, including bacteremia, respiratory tract infections, urinary tract infections, and blood infections. The findings of this study demonstrate that potable water and ice pops sold in Juja can serve as reservoirs of pathogenic bacteria and associated antibiotic-resistant genes. The findings underscore the critical need for enhanced public health interventions and compliance with water vending guidelines to ensure safe drinking water and prevent the spread of waterborne diseases, not only in Juja, Kenya, but also globally.